N-Back Task¶
HED Task ID: hedtsk_n_back
Also known as: N-Back, Dual N-Back
Continuous stream in which each item must be compared to the one n items back; accuracy and RT index working memory updating and monitoring.
Description¶
The N-Back task is a continuous performance paradigm in which participants view a sequence of stimuli (letters, numbers, or spatial locations) and judge whether each current stimulus matches the one presented n trials earlier. Difficulty scales parametrically with n (1-back, 2-back, 3-back). The task engages working memory maintenance, updating, and comparison processes. Performance typically shows decreased accuracy and increased RT with higher n values. The N-back is the most widely used working memory paradigm in neuroimaging, consistently activating dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and parietal regions.
Inclusion test¶
Procedure |
A continuous stream of stimuli is presented; participants indicate when the current item matches the one presented N items back. |
Manipulation |
Load level (N = 0, 1, 2, 3); stimulus type (letters, locations, faces); lure trials (N±1 matches); dual N-back (two simultaneous streams). |
Measurement |
Hit rate, false alarm rate, d-prime; RT; load-dependent accuracy decline. |
Variations¶
Variation |
Description |
Justification |
|---|---|---|
Verbal N-Back |
Letters, digits, or words as stimuli; engages phonological loop. |
Letters or words; phonological working memory |
Spatial N-Back |
Stimulus position changes across locations; engages visuospatial sketchpad. |
Locations instead of letters; visuospatial working memory |
Emotional N-Back |
Emotional faces or affective words; probes emotion-cognition interaction in WM. |
Emotional stimuli; retained per §5.1 (EMOT retired) |
Dual N-Back |
Two independent streams (e.g., auditory + spatial) simultaneously; used in WM training. |
Simultaneous visual and auditory streams; recognized named paradigm (Jaeggi et al., 2008) |
Fractal/Object N-Back |
Complex non-verbal stimuli (fractals, abstract patterns); reduces verbal coding strategies. |
Complex visual objects; different stimulus type |
Adaptive N-Back |
Difficulty adjusts to performance; maintains ~80% accuracy across ability levels. |
N-level adjusts with performance; changes task difficulty trajectory |
N-Back with Lures |
Include items matching at n±1 positions (lures) to increase interference and diagnostic sensitivity. |
Near-miss stimuli create high interference; changes task demand |
Auditory N-Back |
Tones, phonemes, or spoken words; auditory working memory. |
Auditory tones or words; different sensory modality |
Cognitive processes¶
This task engages the following cognitive processes:
Key references¶
{‘authors’: ‘Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., & Koeppe, R. A.’, ‘year’: 1997, ‘title’: ‘Verbal Working Memory Load Affects Regional Brain Activation as Measured by PET’, ‘venue’: ‘Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience’, ‘volume’: ‘9’, ‘issue’: ‘4’, ‘pages’: ‘462-475’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.462’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., & Mintun, M. A. (1997). The role of parietal cortex in verbal working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 17(13), 5282-5288.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.462’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E.’, ‘year’: 2005, ‘title’: ‘N‐back working memory paradigm: A meta‐analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies’, ‘venue’: ‘Human Brain Mapping’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Human Brain Mapping’, ‘volume’: ‘25’, ‘issue’: ‘1’, ‘pages’: ‘46-59’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1002/hbm.20131’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005). N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25(1), 46-59.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20131’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
Recent references¶
{‘authors’: ‘Redick, T. S., & Lindsey, D. R. B.’, ‘year’: 2013, ‘title’: ‘Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: A meta-analysis’, ‘venue’: ‘Psychonomic Bulletin & Review’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Psychonomic Bulletin & Review’, ‘volume’: ‘20’, ‘issue’: ‘6’, ‘pages’: ‘1102-1113’, ‘doi’: ‘10.3758/s13423-013-0453-9’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Redick, T. S., & Lindsey, D. R. B. (2013). Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(6), 1102–1113.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0453-9’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.’, ‘year’: 2010, ‘title’: ‘The concurrent validity of the\n N\n -back task as a working memory measure’, ‘venue’: ‘Memory’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Memory’, ‘volume’: ‘18’, ‘issue’: ‘4’, ‘pages’: ‘394-412’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1080/09658211003702171’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B. (2010). The concurrent validity of the N-back task as a working memory measure. Memory, 18(4), 394–412.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211003702171’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: “Chatham, C. H., Herd, S. A., Brant, A. M., Hazy, T. E., Miyake, A., O’Reilly, R., & Friedman, N. P.”, ‘year’: 2011, ‘title’: ‘From an Executive Network to Executive Control: A Computational Model of then-back Task’, ‘venue’: ‘Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience’, ‘volume’: ‘23’, ‘issue’: ‘11’, ‘pages’: ‘3598-3619’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1162/jocn_a_00047’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: “Chatham, C. H., Herd, S. A., Brant, A. M., Hazy, T. E., Miyake, A., O’Reilly, R., & Friedman, N. P. (2011). From an executive network to executive control: A computational model of the n-back task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(11), 3598–3619.”, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00047’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M.’, ‘year’: 2017, ‘title’: ‘Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies’, ‘venue’: ‘Psychonomic Bulletin & Review’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Psychonomic Bulletin & Review’, ‘volume’: ‘24’, ‘issue’: ‘4’, ‘pages’: ‘1077-1096’, ‘doi’: ‘10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(4), 1077–1096.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Exploring the n-back task: insights, applications, and future directions.’, ‘year’: 2025, ‘title’: ‘Frontiers in Human Neuroscience’, ‘venue’: ‘, 19, 1721330. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1721330’, ‘venue_type’: ‘book’, ‘journal’: None, ‘volume’: None, ‘issue’: None, ‘pages’: None, ‘doi’: ‘10.3389/fnhum.2025.1721330’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Exploring the n-back task: insights, applications, and future directions. (2025). Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 19, 1721330. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1721330’, ‘url’: None, ‘source’: ‘needs_review’, ‘confidence’: ‘low’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}