Prospective Memory Task¶
HED Task ID: hedtsk_prospective_memory
Also known as: Event-Based Prospective Memory, Time-Based Prospective Memory, PM Task, Einstein-McDaniel Paradigm, PMTASK
Participants perform an ongoing task while remembering to execute a deferred intention when a target event occurs (event-based) or after a time interval (time-based); PM hit rate indexes the ability to remember to remember.
Description¶
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to carry out an intended action in the future. In the standard Einstein-McDaniel paradigm, participants perform a continuous ongoing task (e.g., pleasantness rating, lexical decision) while simultaneously holding the intention to execute a secondary action when a specific cue appears (event-based PM: e.g., press a key when an animal word appears) or after a fixed time interval (time-based PM: e.g., press a key every 2 minutes). The critical measure is whether the participant detects the PM cue and executes the intended action. PM is theoretically distinct from retrospective memory: the challenge is not remembering the content of the intention but spontaneously retrieving it at the right moment without an external prompt. The multiprocess framework (McDaniel & Einstein, 2000) proposes that PM retrieval can be supported by automatic, reflexive-associative processes or by resource-demanding strategic monitoring, depending on cue focality, ongoing-task absorption, and individual differences. PM failures are a leading cause of real-world memory complaints and are sensitive to aging, traumatic brain injury, ADHD, and schizophrenia.
Inclusion test¶
Procedure |
Participant performs a continuous ongoing task while holding a delayed intention; on designated trials (event cue) or at designated times (time cue), the participant must interrupt the ongoing task to execute the prospective action. |
Manipulation |
PM cue type (event-based vs. time-based); cue focality (focal cue processed as part of ongoing task vs. non-focal cue requiring monitoring); ongoing-task demand (low vs. high load); PM target frequency; delay between intention formation and PM window; number of PM targets. |
Measurement |
PM hit rate (proportion of cues correctly detected and acted upon); ongoing-task cost (RT and accuracy difference between PM blocks and baseline blocks); time-monitoring behavior (clock-checking frequency in time-based PM); false alarms to lure items. |
Variations¶
Variation |
Description |
Justification |
|---|---|---|
Event-Based PM (Focal Cue) |
PM target is a specific item processed as part of the ongoing task (e.g., ‘press Q when you see the word TIGER’ during a lexical decision task). Supports relatively automatic, reflexive retrieval. |
PM cue is focal target of ongoing task; different resource demand from non-focal |
Event-Based PM (Non-Focal Cue) |
PM target requires monitoring a feature not processed by the ongoing task (e.g., ‘press Q when a word contains the syllable TOR’ during pleasantness rating). Demands strategic monitoring; shows greater ongoing-task cost. |
PM cue is non-focal; requires additional monitoring attention |
Time-Based PM |
Execute PM action after a fixed time interval (e.g., press Q every 2 minutes). Requires self-initiated time monitoring (clock-checking). More dependent on executive resources than event-based PM. |
Time check required at specified interval; different PM cue type |
Activity-Based PM |
Execute PM action at a natural break point (e.g., after finishing a block of trials). Intermediate between event and time cues. |
PM intention linked to completing an activity; different cue type |
Multiple-Intention PM |
Hold several PM intentions simultaneously (different cues trigger different actions). Tests capacity limits of intention maintenance. |
Several PM intentions simultaneously maintained; different load |
Naturalistic PM |
Real-world PM tasks (e.g., remember to mail a letter, call at a specified time). Ecological validity paradigms using experience sampling or virtual reality. |
Real-world task context instead of lab; different ecological setting |
Cognitive processes¶
This task engages the following cognitive processes:
Key references¶
{‘authors’: ‘Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A.’, ‘year’: 1990, ‘title’: ‘Normal aging and prospective memory.’, ‘venue’: ‘Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition’, ‘volume’: ‘16’, ‘issue’: ‘4’, ‘pages’: ‘717-726’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1037/0278-7393.16.4.717’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (1990). Normal aging and prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 717-726.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.4.717’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O.’, ‘year’: 2000, ‘title’: ‘Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: a multiprocess framework’, ‘venue’: ‘Applied Cognitive Psychology’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Applied Cognitive Psychology’, ‘volume’: ‘14’, ‘issue’: ‘7’, ‘pages’: ‘S127-S144’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1002/acp.775’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14(7), S127-S144.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.775’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Smith, R. E.’, ‘year’: 2003, ‘title’: ‘The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance.’, ‘venue’: ‘Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition’, ‘volume’: ‘29’, ‘issue’: ‘3’, ‘pages’: ‘347-361’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1037/0278-7393.29.3.347’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Smith, R. E. (2003). The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29(3), 347-361.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.29.3.347’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
Recent references¶
{‘authors’: ‘Scullin, M. K., McDaniel, M. A., & Shelton, J. T.’, ‘year’: 2013, ‘title’: ‘The Dynamic Multiprocess Framework: Evidence from prospective memory with contextual variability’, ‘venue’: ‘Cognitive Psychology’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Cognitive Psychology’, ‘volume’: ‘67’, ‘issue’: ‘1-2’, ‘pages’: ‘55-71’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.07.001’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: ‘Scullin, M. K., McDaniel, M. A., & Shelton, J. T. (2013). The Dynamic Multiprocess Framework: Evidence from prospective memory with contextual variability. Cognitive Psychology, 67(1-2), 55-71.’, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.07.001’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Cona, G., Scarpazza, C., Sartori, G., Moscovitch, M., & Bisiacchi, P. S.’, ‘year’: 2015, ‘title’: ‘Neural bases of prospective memory: A meta-analysis and the “Attention to Delayed Intention” (AtoDI) model’, ‘venue’: ‘Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews’, ‘venue_type’: ‘journal’, ‘journal’: ‘Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews’, ‘volume’: ‘52’, ‘issue’: None, ‘pages’: ‘21-37’, ‘doi’: ‘10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.007’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: “Cona, G., Scarpazza, C., Sartori, G., Moscovitch, M., & Bhisset, P. (2015). Neural bases of prospective memory: A meta-analysis and the ‘Attention to Delayed Intention’ (AtoDI) model. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 52, 21-37.”, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.007’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}
{‘authors’: ‘Anderson, F. T., & McDaniel, M. A.’, ‘year’: 2019, ‘title’: ‘Prospective Memory’, ‘venue’: ‘Memory & Cognition’, ‘venue_type’: ‘book’, ‘journal’: None, ‘volume’: ‘47’, ‘issue’: ‘1’, ‘pages’: ‘47-62’, ‘doi’: ‘10.4324/9781351000154’, ‘openalex_id’: None, ‘pmid’: None, ‘citation_string’: “Anderson, F. T., & McDaniel, M. A. (2019). Hey buddy, why don’t we take it outside: An experience sampling study of prospective memory. Memory & Cognition, 47(1), 47-62.”, ‘url’: ‘https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351000154’, ‘source’: ‘crossref’, ‘confidence’: ‘high’, ‘verified_on’: ‘2026-04-20’}